{"id":952777,"date":"2026-04-07T09:20:00","date_gmt":"2026-04-07T07:20:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/gradski.me\/?p=952777"},"modified":"2026-04-07T11:42:13","modified_gmt":"2026-04-07T09:42:13","slug":"bolnicke-infekcije-u-crnoj-gori-koliko-su-ceste-sta-ih-uzrokuje-i-kako-se-lijece","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/gradski.me\/en\/drustvo\/bolnicke-infekcije-u-crnoj-gori-koliko-su-ceste-sta-ih-uzrokuje-i-kako-se-lijece\/","title":{"rendered":"Hospital infections in Montenegro: How common are they, what causes them and how are they treated?"},"content":{"rendered":"<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><br>The Public Health Institute explains that a hospital-acquired infection is any infection that develops in a patient after spending at least 48 hours in a hospital facility, and that was not even present in the incubation phase at the time of admission for diagnosis or treatment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">They can also occur after discharge from hospital if they are directly related to previous hospital treatment or medical intervention.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Infections that are evident or in the incubation phase upon admission are not classified in this category.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>How common are hospital infections?<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Estimates show that hospital-acquired infections occur in 5\u201310 percent of all hospitalized patients.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In specialized and tertiary institutions, this frequency may be even higher, and in some intensive care units it can reach 25 percent.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In Montenegro, the incidence of hospital infections is within the global average, ranging from five to 15 percent, depending on the type of institution, department, and working conditions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Why are hospital infections a serious problem?<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Hospital infections:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>prolongs patients' hospital stays by an average of 5\u20137 days,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>increase the costs of treatment,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>complicate the underlying disease,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>increase the risk of death,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>they reduce patients' quality of life and cause additional stress.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For example, in the United States, nearly two million patients develop hospital-acquired infections each year, and treatment costs increase by more than $4.5 billion.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>What types of hospital infections are the most common?<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The most common hospital infections are:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>urinary tract infections, most often associated with catheters \u2013 about 40 percent,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>surgical wound infections \u2013 about 25 percent,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>respiratory system infections, including pneumonia, especially in patients on mechanical ventilation \u2013 about 10 percent,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Blood infections, including sepsis \u2013 about 10 percent,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>gastrointestinal infections, as well as infections of the skin, bones and central nervous system \u2013 about 15 percent.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>What are the most common causes of hospital infections?<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Hospital infections can be caused by:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Bacteria, such as:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Staphylococcus aureus (uklju\u010duju\u0107i MRSA), Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Clostridium difficile (C. diff), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus spp.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Viruses, such as:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">hepatitis B i C, citomegalovirus (CMV), influenca, SARS-CoV-2, RSV i rotavirus.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Fungi, most often:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Candida spp. i Aspergillus spp.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Less commonly, infections can also be caused by parasites, especially in immunocompromised individuals.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Of particular concern is the spread of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms, such as MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus), which further complicates treatment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>How are hospital infections transmitted?<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Infections are transmitted in several ways:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>by direct contact, most often through contaminated hands of staff,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>indirectly, through instruments, surfaces and equipment, such as stethoscopes and bedding,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>by air, coughing and sneezing,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>medical procedures, through catheters, needles, transfusions and surgeries,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>due to inadequate ventilation, crowded rooms and poor sanitary conditions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Hands are the most common source of infection in a hospital environment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Who is most at risk?<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Not all patients are at equal risk.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The most at-risk groups include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>newborns and premature babies,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>people over 60 years of age,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>patients in intensive care units,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>immunocompromised individuals, including people with HIV, malignant diseases and transplant patients,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>patients undergoing invasive procedures, such as intubation, catheterization and hemodialysis.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>How is a hospital infection recognized?<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The most common symptom is fever, especially if it occurs a few days after admission. Other signs depend on the site of infection.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Urinary infections may cause: frequent urination, pain, and cloudy urine.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Lung infections may cause: cough, difficulty breathing, and fever.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Wound infections may cause redness, swelling, and purulent discharge.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sepsis can cause: rapid pulse, drop in blood pressure, confusion, and fever.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It is important to emphasize that a fever can have other causes, so a medical evaluation is always necessary.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Are all infections in the hospital nosocomial infections?<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">No. A hospital-acquired infection is only considered such if:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>occurs at least 48 hours after admission,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>appears up to 30 days after the surgical intervention, or up to 90 days if an implant is inserted,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>occurs in newborns after birth,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>was not present at the reception.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Colonization with microorganisms without symptoms is not considered an infection.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>How are hospital infections treated?<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Treatment depends on the cause and location of the infection.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Most often includes:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>antibiotic, antiviral or antifungal therapy, if necessary targeted after an antibiogram,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>removal or replacement of a medical device if it is a source of infection, for example a catheter,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>symptomatic treatment and support, such as infusions and oxygen,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>intensive care in severe cases.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Can hospital infections be prevented?<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Yes. Although it is not possible to completely eliminate them, it is possible to significantly reduce them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Prevention measures include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>regular and proper hand washing of staff, patients and visitors,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>disinfection of instruments and surfaces,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>use of sterile equipment,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>control and rational use of antibiotics,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>staff education and infection monitoring,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>limiting visits to high-risk wards.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Good organization and systematic monitoring can reduce the number of infections by up to 30 percent.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>What are the basic principles of prevention in hospitals?<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Some of the most important measures are:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>hand hygiene, including hand washing at five key moments according to the recommendations of the World Health Organization,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>antisepsis and asepsis, i.e. skin disinfection and the use of sterile material,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>limiting the use of catheters and other invasive procedures when they are not necessary,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>microbiological surveillance, including sample analysis and monitoring of antibiotic resistance,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>mandatory reporting of each case to the hospital infection control team.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>What can patients and visitors do?<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Patients and visitors also play an important role in prevention.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">It is recommended that:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>wash their hands before arriving and after leaving the hospital,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>respect visit restrictions and dress codes, including wearing protective masks and gowns when necessary,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>do not touch medical equipment without permission,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>notify staff if they notice signs of infection,<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>they avoid coming to visit if they are sick.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Can a hospital be completely free of infections?<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Unfortunately, no. The hospital environment is where the most seriously ill patients reside, often particularly vulnerable to infections. However, a well-organized system, education, supervision and responsible behavior can make a big difference and ensure maximum safety for each patient.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Together against hospital infections<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Healthcare workers, patients and visitors can all contribute to reducing the risk of infections.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Proper hygiene, education, and adherence to protective measures are key to safe treatment and successful recovery.<\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Bolni\u010dke infekcije nijesu rijetkost &#8211; prema podacima Instituta za javno zdravlje Crne Gore, one poga\u0111aju od pet do 15 odsto hospitalizovanih pacijenata u na\u0161oj zemlji. One produ\u017eavaju bolest, ote\u017eavaju oporavak, a mogu biti dovesti i do smrti. \u0160ta se de\u0161ava kada lije\u010denje u bolnici postane uzrok nove bolesti? Ko je najugro\u017eeniji? Kako jednostavne navike mogu smanjiti njihov broj? \u0160ta mogu da urade pacijenti i posjetioci?<\/p>","protected":false},"author":14,"featured_media":952779,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[9],"tags":[30061,188,4858,8631],"naslovna":[],"class_list":["post-952777","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-drustvo","tag-bolnicke-infekcije","tag-crna-gora","tag-lijecenje-2","tag-uzrok"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/gradski.me\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/952777","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/gradski.me\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/gradski.me\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/gradski.me\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/14"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/gradski.me\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=952777"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/gradski.me\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/952777\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":952780,"href":"https:\/\/gradski.me\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/952777\/revisions\/952780"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/gradski.me\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/952779"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/gradski.me\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=952777"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/gradski.me\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=952777"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/gradski.me\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=952777"},{"taxonomy":"naslovna","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/gradski.me\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/naslovna?post=952777"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}